Biosynthesized nanoparticle characterization<\/h3>\n
The yield of P. undulatus ethanol extract was roughly 20\u00a0g, and the yield of biosynthesized nanoparticles was 41.68% for silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs), 50.05% for zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs), and 97.09% for selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs). The biosynthesis and characterization of biosynthesized nanoparticles had been confirmed utilizing UV-VIS spectroscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM).<\/p>\n
UV-VIS spectroscopic evaluation<\/h3>\n
The formation of the nanoparticles was initially confirmed by ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy, which detects the attribute floor plasmon resonance (SPR) or digital absorption peaks (Fig.\u00a01). The Ag-NPs exhibited a most absorption peak at 475\u00a0nm. This peak is attribute of the SPR phenomenon for silver nanoparticles. The ZnO-NPs displayed a attribute absorption peak at 380\u00a0nm. The Se-NPs confirmed a main peak at 265\u00a0nm.<\/p>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-61397-7\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_61397_Fig1_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nKnowledge of the Ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy of the biosynthesized (a) Ag-NPs, (b) ZnO-NPs, and (c) Se-NPs utilizing Paratapes undulatus extract.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) evaluation<\/h3>\n
The TEM evaluation of biosynthesized nanoparticles (ZnO-, Ag-, and Se-) supplied particulars on the morphology and relative measurement (Fig.\u00a02). The micrographs revealed that the AgNPs are likely to type aggregated clusters with a measurement of round 125\u00a0nm. The zinc oxide nanoparticles had irregular and non-spherical shapes with a measurement of round 185\u00a0nm. The noticed buildings seem elongated or rectangular on a scale of 200\u00a0nm. The size bar for this pattern can also be 200\u00a0nm. The selenium nanoparticles appeared as darkish, almost spherical\/oval particles with a measurement of 214\u00a0nm. These particles had been seen inside a lighter, filamentous matrix, suggesting that the NPs could also be encapsulated by natural parts current within the P. undulatus extract. The size of the picture for the Se-NPs is (2\u00a0\u03bcm), indicating a bigger area of view encompassing the matrix and dispersed nanoparticles.<\/p>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-61397-7\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_61397_Fig2_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nTEM micrographs of the biosynthesized (a) Ag-NPs, (b) ZnO-NPs, and (c) Se-NPs utilizing Paratapes undulatus extract.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
GC\u2013MS evaluation of Paratapes undulatus ethanolic extract<\/h3>\n
GC\u2013MS evaluation was carried out to determine the bioactive compounds within the Pu-ethanolic extract and its ZnO-, Ag-, and Se- nanoformulations, as in Fig.\u00a03A\u2013D within the supplementary file. The full ion chromatogram (TIC) of the extract confirmed a posh profile with over 30 peaks detected inside a retention time (RT) vary of 5.54 to 52.46\u00a0min (Fig.\u00a03A within the supplementary file). Compound identification was achieved by evaluating the mass spectra with libraries reminiscent of Wiley9 and NIST. The molecular weights and chemical buildings of the main constituents are summarized in Desk\u00a01 within the supplementary file. The chemical profile was dominated by heterocyclic, organosilicon, porphyrin, sulfur-containing, and steroidal derivatives. Main constituents included 1,5,9,13-tetrathia-3,11-cyclohexadecaediol (10.33%), 7-syn-acetoxy-5-exo-hydroxy-3-exo-methoxycarbonyl-bicyclo [2.2.1] heptane-2,6-carbolactone (8.94%), and a couple of,4-dibromo deuteroporphyrin IX dimethyl ester (6.16%), which collectively represented the principal fraction of the extract. Moreover, a number of metalloporphyrins reminiscent of copper tetraphenylporphyrin, (5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrinato) zinc (II), and (2-nitro-5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrinato) nickel (II) had been recognized, highlighting the presence of metallated macrocycles with robust redox and antioxidant potential. Different notable compounds included organosilicon derivatives (e.g., pentamethyl-pentaphenyl-cyclopentasiloxane), heterocyclic nitrogen compounds (e.g., 1-tert-butyl-1,4-dihydro-5\u00a0H-tetrazol-5-one), and sulfur-containing molecules (e.g., 4,8-dimethyl-1,5-dithia-2,6-cyclooctadiene). The coexistence of porphyrins, organosilicons, and sulfur metabolites signifies a synergistic biochemical profile which will contribute to the extract\u2019s noticed antioxidant, cytoprotective, and anti inflammatory actions.<\/p>\n
Pu\u2013ZnONPs function a definite chemical composition comprising totally different compounds with retention occasions 5.02\u201329.96\u00a0min which can be summarized in Desk\u00a02 within the supplementary file. The chromatogram was dominated by cyclobutylmethanol (43.19%), pentane 3-ethyl-2,4-dimethyl (26.67%), and pregn-5-en-20-one (TMS spinoff) (22.90%), collectively representing the main constituents of the nanoparticle formulation. Minor peaks corresponded to 1-bromo-2,2,3-trimethylcyclopropane (1.72%), 3-methyl-3-nitrosobutan-2-one (1.03%), and hint ranges of organosilicon (pentaphenyl cyclopentasiloxane, 0.23%), porphyrin zinc complicated (5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrinato zinc (II), 0.17%), and cyclohexane carboxamide (0.16%). The presence of each natural and organometallic compounds signifies profitable floor capping and stability of ZnO nanoparticles by the extract\u2019s bioactive constituents.<\/p>\n
The GC\u2013MS profile of Pu-AgNPs (Fig.\u00a03C within the supplementary file) exhibits a combination of low-molecular-weight oxygenated compounds with retention occasions starting from 5.10 to eight.35\u00a0min which can be offered in Desk\u00a03 within the supplementary file. The chromatogram was dominated by (S)\u22124-methyl-\u03b3-butyrolactone (68.41%), indicating its main position as a possible lowering and stabilizing agent throughout nanoparticle biosynthesis. Different notable constituents included tetraphenylporphyrin to dibromo-titanium (IV) (5.82%), which represents a metalloporphyrin complicated with acknowledged antioxidant and redox-modulating properties, and adipamic acid (2.71%), recognized for its amide practical teams which will contribute to nanoparticle floor stabilization. Minor compounds reminiscent of 7,7-dimethyl-1,4-dioxaspiro [2.4] heptan-5-one, (2R,4R)\u22122,4-dimethylhexan-1-ol, 1-butanol, and 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol had been additionally detected, reflecting the contribution of small natural molecules.<\/p>\n
The chemical profile of Pu\u2013SeNPs (Fig.\u00a03D within the supplementary file) revealed a chemically various composition consisting of 30 compounds, with retention occasions starting from 5.17 to eight.96\u00a0min, as proven in Desk\u00a04 within the supplementary file. The spectrum was predominantly characterised by butane, 1-chloro (70.51%), which represents the main peak and should function a lowering or solvent-derived element throughout nanoparticle formation. Different notable compounds included [3,4,2\u00a0H\u2082] cyclopent-3-en-1-ol (6.94%), 6,6-dimethyl-1-ethynyl-7-oxabicyclo [4.1.0] heptan-2-one (4.92%), and tetraphenylporphyrin to dichloro titanium (IV) (5.74%), a metalloporphyrin complicated suggesting redox-active coordination that aids nanoparticle stabilization. Further minor constituents, reminiscent of cyclobutylmethanol (2.48%), 2,2-dimethyl-1-nitropropane (0.39%), and 1,1-bis(tri-deuteriomethyl) but-2-yn-1-ol (0.59%), point out the presence of alcohols, nitro compounds, and bicyclic derivatives contributing to nanoparticle floor modification.<\/p>\n
You will need to be aware that every one compound identifications on this research are tentative, based mostly on fragmentation patterns and database matching. All through the evaluation, the chromatogram is scaled to resolve and determine particular person compounds by their attribute peaks. The software program yields complete information for every fragment, together with molecular system, molecular weight, and retention time. Exact detection requires guide optimization of the chromatographic baseline and selective software of peak integration to isolate particular analytes.<\/p>\n
Antioxidant and free radical scavenging actions<\/h3>\n
The antioxidant and free radical scavenging actions of the Paratapes undulatus (Pu) ethanolic extract and its biosynthesized nanoparticles are summarized in Desk\u00a01. The crude Pu extract demonstrated reasonable antioxidant exercise, considerably enhanced following nanoparticle synthesis. Particularly, the Pu-ZnO and Pu-Se nanoparticles exhibited a major enchancment (p\u2009\u2264\u20090.05) in Whole Antioxidant Capability (TAC), with respective fold will increase of 1.2 and 1.3, and related enhancements in Iron Decreasing Energy (IRP). Constant tendencies had been noticed throughout the free radical scavenging assays. Pu-ZnO and Pu-Se NPs demonstrated vital will increase in DPPH inhibition (1.2- and 1.4-fold) and ABTS scavenging (0.8- and 1.3-fold). Moreover, each formulations considerably boosted nitric oxide (NO) inhibition by 1.3- and 1.4-fold, respectively. Within the case of Pu-Ag NPs, all measured parameters confirmed vital enhancements, with an roughly 1-fold improve relative to the crude extract.<\/p>\n
In vitro antidiabetic exercise<\/h3>\n
The anti-diabetic potential of the Paratapes undulatus (Pu) ethanolic extract and its biosynthesized nanoparticles was evaluated towards \u03b1-amylase, \u03b1-glucosidase, and aldose reductase (Desk\u00a02). The crude Pu extract confirmed reasonable inhibitory exercise, which was considerably enhanced upon nanoparticle formation. Particularly, the Pu\u2013Se NPs exhibited essentially the most substantial enchancment (p\u2009\u2264\u20090.05), with a 1.44-fold improve in \u03b1-amylase inhibition and 1.65-fold will increase in each \u03b1-glucosidase and aldose reductase inhibition. These outcomes intently approached the efficacy of the usual medicine, Acarbose and Quercetin. Correspondingly, the IC\u2085\u2080 values decreased with fold adjustments of 0.85 and 0.90, respectively, indicating superior efficiency. Pu\u2013ZnO NPs confirmed reasonable enhancements, particularly attaining a 1.19-fold improve in \u03b1-amylase inhibition and a 1.31-fold improve in each \u03b1-glucosidase and aldose reductase exercise in comparison with the uncooked extract. IC\u2085\u2080 values exhibiting a major discount in comparison with the extract with (0.85 FC) for \u03b1-amylase and (0.90 FC) for \u03b1-glucosidase. Pu\u2013Ag NPs exhibited the mildest enhancements, with a 1.2-fold improve in \u03b1-amylase inhibition and a negligible 1.04-fold change for \u03b1-glucosidase and aldose reductase. The IC\u2085\u2080 was decreased by (1.04 FC) for \u03b1-amylase and (1.14 FC) for \u03b1-glucosidase.<\/p>\n
Anti-Alzheimer exercise<\/h3>\n
The inhibitory results of the Paratapes undulatus (Pu) extract, and its biosynthesized nanoparticles towards Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) are proven in Fig.\u00a03. All nanoparticle formulations demonstrated various levels of enchancment in comparison with the uncooked extract. Pu\u2013Se NPs confirmed a major improve in AChE inhibition (\u02f7 36%) and essentially the most substantial discount in IC\u2085\u2080 (\u02f7 8\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL). It intently approached the efficacy of the usual drug, Donepezil. Pu\u2013ZnO and Pu\u2013Ag NPs exhibited no vital enchancment in AChE inhibitory exercise and IC50 in comparison with the crude Pu extract. Donepezil remained essentially the most potent inhibitor, attaining almost 50% inhibition with the bottom IC\u2085\u2080.<\/p>\n
Anti-arthritic exercise<\/h4>\n
All nano-formulations enhanced the inhibition of protein denaturation and proteinase (Desk\u00a03). Pu\u2013Se NPs confirmed the best enhancement, with a 3.12-fold improve in protein denaturation inhibition and a 3.58-fold improve in proteinase inhibition. Correspondingly, the IC\u2085\u2080 for protein denaturation was markedly diminished by 0.34 FC, indicating a considerable improve in efficiency that just about matched the usual drug, Diclofenac Sodium. Pu\u2013ZnO NPs confirmed a 1.02-fold improve in each protein denaturation and proteinase inhibition. Nonetheless, the IC\u2085\u2080 for protein denaturation decreased by 1.19 FC, suggesting barely decrease efficiency regardless of the small improve in most inhibition. Pu\u2013Ag NPs confirmed negligible adjustments in inhibitory exercise in comparison with the uncooked extract, with fold adjustments of 0.997 and 0.996 for protein denaturation and proteinase inhibition, respectively. Just like the ZnO variant, its IC\u2085\u2080 for protein denaturation decreased by 1.22-fold.<\/p>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-61397-7\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_61397_Fig3_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nThe in vitro anti-Alzheimer\u2019s exercise of the Ag, ZnO, and Se nanoparticles biosynthesized utilizing Paratapes undulatus ethanolic extract (Pu) is represented by inhibition % and IC50 \u00b5g\/mL. The values had been calculated from a 3-sample and given as imply\u2009\u00b1\u2009SE. Completely different letters point out a major distinction at p\u2009\u2264\u20090.05. Donepezil is used as a typical anti-Alzheimer\u2019s drug.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
Anti-inflammatory exercise<\/h3>\n
The research of anti-inflammatory exercise demonstrates that nanoparticle synthesis considerably enhances enzymatic inhibition (Desk\u00a04). For COX-1, Pu-Se NPs and Pu-ZnO NPs confirmed the very best efficiency with inhibition FCs of 1.88 and 1.87, respectively, whereas their IC50 FCs dropped to roughly 0.65, indicating larger effectivity at decrease concentrations. The same pattern was noticed for COX-2, the place these two nanoparticles achieved inhibition FCs of roughly 1.80 and IC50 FCs of 0.66. Essentially the most enhancements occurred within the 5-LOX, the place Pu-Se NPs and Pu-ZnO NPs elevated the inhibition p.c by greater than doubling the baseline exercise FCs of two.13 and a couple of.11. In distinction, Pu-Ag NPs constantly underperformed the baseline throughout all enzymes, with inhibition FCs starting from 0.43 to 0.60 and IC50 FCs almost doubling, suggesting they’re much less efficient than the uncooked Pu extract.<\/p>\n
Anticancer exercise<\/h3>\nCytotoxicity of Paratapes undulatus extract and its nanoparticles<\/h4>\n
The cytotoxic exercise of Paratapes undulatus extract, and its biosynthesized nanoparticles towards HepG2 and Caco-2 most cancers cell traces is illustrated in Fig.\u00a04. Throughout all therapies, IC\u2085\u2080 values exceeded the utmost examined focus (>\u2009100\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL). Within the HepG2 cell line, Pu-AgO NPs exhibited extra pronounced inhibitory results than the uncooked Pu extract, whereas Pu-ZnO and Pu-Se NPs displayed additional diminished cytotoxicity. In distinction, Caco-2 cells revealed a definite sensitivity profile; the uncooked Pu extract was essentially the most potent inhibitor, adopted by the AgNP formulation. Regardless of these efficiency variations, all examined compounds had IC\u2085\u2080 values larger than the 100\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL threshold in each cell fashions.<\/p>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-61397-7\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_61397_Fig4_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nComparative evaluation of the in vitro anticancer potential of Pu extract and its nano-formulations (ZnO, Ag, and Se) throughout HepG-2 and Caco-2 cells after publicity for 48\u00a0h. The determine exhibits dose-dependent cell viability curves and the calculated IC\u2085\u2080 values in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
DNA fragmentation<\/h4>\n
The DNA-damaging potential of Paratapes undulatus extract and its nanoformulations (ZnO, Ag, and Se) was evaluated in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells utilizing the comet assay (Fig.\u00a05). DNA injury was quantified by tail size, tail DNA share (tail DNA%), and tail second (TM), with doxorubicin (DOX) serving because the optimistic management. In HepG2 cells, ZnO-NPs elicited essentially the most pronounced DNA injury share, considerably rising all comet parameters, roughly as a lot as DOX. Whereas the Ag-NPs induced reasonable DNA fragmentation, Se-NPs exhibited the weakest impact, inflicting considerably much less injury than all different therapies. Conversely, in Caco-2 cells, the genotoxic response various by parameter. All nanoformulations considerably elevated tail DNA% to ranges similar to DOX, suggesting excessive sensitivity on this cell line. Notably, the uncooked Pu extract didn’t induce vital DNA fragmentation in Caco-2 cells, highlighting a definite distinction in biocompatibility between the extract and its synthesized nanoparticles.<\/p>\n
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