CS is derived from the deacetylation of chitin, and it’s designated as chitosan if the deacetylation is above 50% Nqoro et al.40. CS is a basic copolymer shaped by means of the deacetylation of chitin, resulting in the emergence of amine teams that confer cationic properties to CS41. The current work employed acid digestion (4\u00a0N HCl) for demineralization of salt ions from the crab exoskeleton with the ratio of exoskeleton to HCl of 1:14 (w\/v) at ambient temperature (roughly 30\u00a0\u00b0C) for 36\u00a0h. HCl can eradicate minerals corresponding to CaCO3 and CaCl2 from the crab exoskeletons by means of an ion change mechanism and produce chitin. Chitin displays a robust affiliation with proteins42. Moreover, deproteinization is crucial within the extraction course of. The deproteinization course of utilized a 5% NaOH resolution at a focus ratio of 1:12 (w\/v) at 90\u00a0\u00b0C for twenty-four\u00a0h. The alkali response throughout deproteinization entails the saponification of lipids and the solubilization of proteins.<\/p>\n
G\u00eejiu et al.43\u00a0maximized processing circumstances of chitin from Liocarcinus holsatus and Pachygrapus golton, primarily positioned in northern Romania, demonstrating that 5% NaOH was optimum for deproteinization at 75\u00a0\u00b0C. Moreover, essentially the most essential stage is the deacetylation of chitin derived from the crab. This process utilized alkali hydrolysis utilizing a 70% NaOH resolution, sustaining a chitin to NaOH focus ratio of 1:14 (w\/v) at a deacetylation temperature of 100\u00a0\u00b0C for a period of 5\u00a0h. Processing parameters, together with temperature, deacetylation period, chitin-to-alkali dosage proportion, and the particle measurement distribution of chitin can regulate the deacetylation diploma (DD) of the resultant CS. The deacetylation temperature could elevate the DD worth, though it could scale back the extent of polymerization and\/or molecular weight of the resultant CS44.<\/p>\n
Chitosan yield<\/h3>\n
The chitosan yield was estimated from the crab shells primarily based upon the dry weight measurements utilizing Eq.\u00a01. This examine generated a superb chitosan yield of about 11.02\u2009\u00b1\u20090.55%. Related outcomes have been reported by \u00d6zbay et al.45\u00a0reported that the chitosan content material of C. sapidus was generated as 7.55%. Whereas Kaya et al.46\u00a0discovered that, the chitosan yield of C. sapidus was reported as 9.2%. Then again, Talab et al.34\u00a0discovered the next chitosan yield of 16.33% from crab in contrast with 15.35% CS yield from shrimp. Additionally, Pratiwi et al.47\u00a0obtained the best yield worth from swimming crab at 12.4%\u00b10.9, adopted by shrimp (8.7%\u00b10.5) and crab (4.0%\u00b10.5). Longo et al., 202548 reported that, the common chitosan yield of C. sapidus was 10.71\u2009\u00b1\u20090.48% earlier than purification and seven.93\u2009\u00b1\u20090.34% after purification.<\/p>\n
Characterization<\/h3>\nParticle measurement and zeta potential<\/h4>\n
The outcomes of particle measurement, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI) for each industrial and crab chitosan nanoparticles (Cs NPs) have been reported as follows: the DLS outcomes of crab CsNPs gave the impression to be the optimum CS-NPs with minimal particle measurement (192.74\u2009\u00b1\u20093.25\u00a0nm), zeta potential (25.15\u2009\u00b1\u20091.19 mV) smallest PDI (0.228\u2009\u00b1\u20090.011) compared with industrial CsNPs had a particle measurement (245.47\u2009\u00b1\u20093.21\u00a0nm), zeta potential (32.24\u2009\u00b1\u20090.72 mV) smallest PDI (0.191\u2009\u00b1\u20090.055), respectively. Du et al.49\u00a0proposed that the NH2 teams current within the chitosan polymer chains could also be related to the particle measurement. The bigger particle measurement of chitosan nanoparticles could have been attributable to a stronger protonation of the NH2 moiety, which elevated molecular repulsion and triggered the chitosan polymer chain to stretch. Nonetheless, due to a decreased chain entanglement propensity, a decrease MW may not end in smaller nanoparticles. In comparison with decrease MW chitosan, greater MW chitosan chains may have the ability to entangle with each other to type extra compact particles, whereas the best zeta potential worth, with a price larger than 30 mV, indicating it was essentially the most steady pattern amongst all samples studied50. In case of nanoparticles, a PDI beneath 0.3 is desired, since values greater than 0.3 point out low uniformity, being a sign of aggregation51.<\/p>\n
FTIR evaluation<\/h4>\n
FTIR evaluation is utilized to determine the biomolecules of the CS structure52. The spectral frequency starting from 484 to 825\u00a0cm1 in any respect samples was attributed to the pyranose group. A notable characteristic of CS was the stretching of C\u2013O\u2013C and C\u2013O bridges, noticed in all samples that exceeded 1000\u00a0cm1(Wahab et al.)8. The bands at 1024.62, 1024.20, 1027.22, and 1027.63\u00a0cm1 offered the stretching vibration of C-O of major alcohols; these at 1061.03, 1061.56, 1064.72, and 1061.27\u00a0cm1 is likely to be indicative of the C-O stretching of secondary alcohols, whereas these at 1150.91, 1151.14, 1151.07, 1151.59\u00a0cm1 referred to the C-O stretching vibrations of tertiary alcohols for Crab CS and Crab CS NPs, Comm CS, and Comm CS NPs, respectively (Fig.\u00a02).<\/p>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig2_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nFTIR outcomes of Crab CS, Crab CS NPs, Comm CS, and Comm CS NPs.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
The vibrational band of C-N seems at 1319.11, 1320.45, 1318.07 and 1316.82\u00a0cm1 for Crab CS, Crab CS NPs, Comm CS, and Comm CS NPs, respectively. The bands at 1375.63, 1372.14, 1375.34, and 1375.47\u00a0cm1 are credited to the C-H bending vibration of CH, whereas these at 1419.62, 1423.21, 1416.69, and 1419.29\u00a0cm1 referred to the C-H bending vibration of CH2 for Crab CS, Crab CS NPs, Comm CS, and Comm CS NPs, respectively. The alerts round 1500\u00a0cm-1 at 1590.7, 1599.8, 1588.36, and 1591.05\u00a0cm1 referred to the C-N stretching vibrations of Crab CS, Crab CS NPs, Comm CS, and Comm CS NPs, respectively. Wahab et al.8 attributed the vibrational peaks round 1550, 1559, 1555, and 1557\u00a0cm1 to the amine III bands C\u2013N stretch for comm CS, freshwater, marine, and brackish water CS crabs, respectively. The prevalence of peaks at 1643.81, 1650.8, 1651.65, and 1645.89\u00a0cm1 for crab CS, crab CS NPs, comm CS, and comm CS NPs referred to the C\u2009=\u2009O of acetamide teams of remaining chitin; nonetheless, the low depth of those peaks referred to a superb deacetylation of chitin extracted from crab.<\/p>\n
The bands at 2870.05, 2855.04, 2874.34, and 2871.82\u00a0cm1 assigned the C-H aliphatic stretching group (CH and CH2). The looks of peaks at 3294.15, 3351.47, 3257.93, and 3294.87\u00a0cm1 referred to the N-H stretching of the NH2 group.<\/p>\n
The peaks at 3736.24, 3725.38, 3717, and 3717.04\u00a0cm1 assigned the O-H group (free from hydrogen bonding) for crab CS and crab CS NPs, comm CS, and comm CS NPs, respectively. The FTIR spectrum evaluation indicated that the CS extracted from crab and its nanoparticles displayed a attribute \u03b1-CS construction. The FTIR findings are equal to comm CS and former paperwork within the literature data44. Earlier works have validated the structural heterogeneity of CS contingent upon the period required for the deacetylation process53.<\/p>\n
DD was computed to be 98.79 and 97.21% of each crab CS and crab CS NPs, respectively. This discovering was much like the DD of 99.53 and 98.52% for each comm CS and comm CS NPs, respectively. The excessive DD values obtained within the current examine could also be attributed to the mixed impact of concentrated NaOH resolution (70%), elevated deacetylation temperature (100\u00a0\u00b0C), extended response time (5\u00a0h), and the optimized solid-to-liquid ratio (1:14 w\/v). These circumstances improve the removing of acetyl teams from chitin and promote the formation of free amino teams in chitosan.<\/p>\n
Equally, \u00c1guila-Almanza et al.52 produced CS with a excessive DD of 70.8% by using 50% NaOH, in contrast with 40% NaOH, which resulted in 64.5% DD. In Comparability, Nardo et al.53\u00a0produced CS mechanochemically with a level of deacetylation (DD) of 23% by combining chitin and NaOH in a 1:5 (w\/v) ratio utilizing a ball mill for 30 to 90\u00a0min. Related observations have been reported by \u00c1guila-Almanza et al.54, who demonstrated that rising NaOH focus improved DD values, whereas Anusha et al.54\u00a0and He et al.55\u00a0reported that greater deacetylation temperatures and prolonged alkaline therapy enhanced chitosan deacetylation effectivity. A similar examine carried out by (Anusha et al.)54\u00a0utilized chitin extracted from squid pens to synthesize CS with the ball mill methodology in a nitrogen environment. Following 2\u00a0h of ball milling, the resultant CS exhibited a DD of round 80percent56. The DD outcomes of the current work have been greater than different earlier research that show the wonderful and promising capability of 70% NaOH within the deacetylation course of in addition to the focus ratio (1:14 w\/v) and the deacetylation temperature (100\u00a0\u00b0C) and time (5\u00a0h). Regardless of the advance in DD below robust alkaline circumstances, extreme NaOH focus, excessive temperature, and extended therapy could trigger partial hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds and dissolution of low-molecular-weight fractions, thereby lowering the ultimate chitosan yield. Consequently, chitosan extraction requires balancing deacetylation effectivity and polymer preservation to realize each excessive DD and acceptable yield25.<\/p>\n
XRD evaluation<\/h4>\n
The construction of CS and its NPs was investigated by the XRD diffractogram and in contrast with the industrial ones (Fig.\u00a03). Crab CS confirmed two broad peaks at 19.64\u25e6, 21.13\u25e6 and one weak peak at 29.13\u00ba, whereas crab CS NPs confirmed their attribute broad peaks at 19.299\u25e6, 20.453\u25e6, along with a weak peak at 28.957\u25e6. The small shift in 2\u019f measurements could also be attributed to the distinction in particle measurement between CS and its nanoparticle type. In the same sample, Comm. CS confirmed two broad diffraction peaks at 18.4\u25e6, 20.05\u25e6, and two weak peaks at 29.4\u25e6, and 35.88\u25e6 whereas Comm. CS NPs confirmed broad peaks at 18.4\u25e6, 20.05\u25e6, and a weak peak at 29.4\u25e6. The attribute diffraction alerts at 2\u019f ~ 20\u00ba, have been acknowledged as the primary diffraction sign in all samples, which assigned the hkl of (110) of amide II (NH2) and is indicative of the \u03b1-CS form57. As this attribute peak is broad, XRD evaluation investigated the amorphous construction of all CS samples. Thus, XRD evaluation is a useful instrument to distinguish between the crystalline and amorphous types of CS. The height noticed at 2\u03b8\u2009~\u200929\u00ba of all samples could correspond to the (130) lattice aircraft of the \u03b1-chitosan (\u03b1-CS), indicating that the three-dimensional configuration of crab chitin conforms to the \u03b1-polymorph, with the CS filaments organized in an antiparallel orientation4. The \u03b1-CS strands show an \u03b1-orientation that they’re coupled by intra-strand (C – OH cdots OH – C)<\/span> hydrogen bonds, whereas the \u03b1-CS layers are additional interconnected by way of progressive (C – OH cdots OH – C)<\/span> hydrogen bonding connections58. Moreover, the weak peaks of two \u019f ~ 29\u00ba in all samples could also be consultant of excessive DD, aligning with the findings of (He et al.)55 who reported the height depth diminished because the DD worth elevated in ultra-high CS.<\/p>\n XRD of (A) Crab CS, (B) Crab CS NPs, (C) Comm CS and (D) Comm CS NPs.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n Crystallinity index (CrI) was estimated from XRD patterns for the ready samples utilizing Segal equation primarily based on depth of crystalline peak round 2\u03b8\u2009\u2248\u200920 and on the amorphous area near 2\u03b8\u2009=\u200916\u00b0 as follows:<\/p>\n $$:CrIleft(%proper)=frac{({I}_{110::}-:{I}_{am})}{{I}_{110}}occasions:100$$<\/span><\/p>\n \n (4)\n <\/p>\n<\/div>\n The CrI values calculated have been 40.5% for the Crab CS, 31.9% for the Crab CS NPs, 52.9% for Comm CS and 45.7% for Comm CS NPs. CrI calculations derived from XRD diffractograms confirmed the predominantly amorphous nature of the synthesized chitosan samples. The broad diffraction peaks noticed round 2\u03b8\u2009\u2248\u200920\u00b0 along with the comparatively low CrI values point out lowered molecular ordering inside the polymer matrix. The outcomes confirmed that industrial chitosan had a comparatively extra crystalline construction than samples from crab. Moreover, the nanoparticle samples exhibited barely decrease crystallinity than the corresponding bulk chitosan, suggesting that the mechanical milling course of contributed to disruption of intermolecular hydrogen bonding and crystalline domains.<\/p>\n Rostamabadi et al.59\u00a0attributed the low diploma of crystallinity in biopolymers to the formation of inter- and intra-hydrogen bonds between the molecules. The height at 2 \u019f of 35.88\u25e6 for comm. CS could also be consultant of the chitin residuals in comm. CS (Fig.\u00a03). Nonetheless, Meena et al.60\u00a0reported the crystalline type of CS to the formation of a robust peak at 25.4\u00ba, whereas Wang et al.61 distinguished the amorphous CS construction by the broad peaks noticeable round 25.4\u25e6 and 38.0\u25e6 within the XRD evaluation. The absence of diffraction peaks at 10\u25e6 referred to the absence of amide I (\u2013N\u2013CO\u2013CH3) of residual chitin and therefore mirrored a superb deacetylation course of, this discovering was in settlement with the outcomes of Ma et al.62. Nonetheless, the peaks beneath 20\u25e6 (18\u201319\u25e6) have been as a result of existence of few parts in remoted CS, which aligns with prior observations of crab biowaste61, and king crab63. Crab CS mirrored barely decrease diffraction angles in contrast with these of comm CS, the outcomes matched with the outcomes of CS derived from crab and squilla by64. Then again, Garenaux et al.65\u00a0attributed the amorphous type of extracted CS to the presence of remaining proteins, lipids, and minerals within the pattern, which lowers the relative peak depth. As compared, Marei et al.66\u00a0noticed that shrimp chitosan exhibited two vital diffraction peaks at 9.4\u00b0 and 20.2\u00b0, beside two lesser peaks at 22.0\u00b0 and 26.8\u00b0; conversely, locust chitosan revealed three peaks at 9.3\u00b0, 20.2\u00b0, and 24.4\u00b0. Moreover, prior analysis on bugs, shrimp, and crabs revealed analogous diffraction peaks inside the vary of 10\u00b0 to twenty\u00b067. In a earlier work34, extracted CS from some crab shells that recorded the next diffraction peak at 25.42\u00b0 for crab CS and 17.578\u00b0 for its NPs type, respectively. The Debye-Scherrer equation elucidates the correlation between peak width within the spectrum of X-rays and particle size68. In response to Debye-Scherrer calculations, the particle measurement was 84.2\u00a0nm for Crab CS NPs and 85.74\u00a0nm for Comm CS NPs. The Particle measurement calculated with the Debye\u2013Scherrer equation displays the imply crystallite measurement of nanoparticles and never their hydrodynamic diameter in suspension.<\/p>\n SEM micrographs outlined a variation within the roughness and floor morphology among the many various kinds of CS and its nanoparticle varieties. Marie et al.66\u00a0reported notable variations within the floor morphology of CS derived from a wide range of sources, together with bugs, fungi, krill, and crabs exhibited. The general morphology of CS in any respect samples exhibited an amorphous construction below SEM that aligned with the XRD outcomes (Fig.\u00a04). Furthermore, crab CS confirmed a flake-like, exhausting, heterogenous, and tough floor with pores between 46.1 and 153.9\u00a0\u03bcm whereas crab CS NPs confirmed a tough floor with cubic to spherical shapes and pores between 8.4 and 21.32\u00a0\u03bcm with smaller sizes relying upon the particle measurement discount utilizing the ball milling method.<\/p>\n SEM Photos of (A) Crab CS, (B) Crab CS NPs, (C) Comm CS and (D) Comm CS NPs.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n As compared, comm CS represents a mix of tough and clean floor morphology with fibrous heterogenous construction and pores between 59.71 and 222.8\u00a0\u03bcm, whereas comm CS NPs confirmed extra advantageous particles with spherical form and pores between 7.5 and 26.79\u00a0\u03bcm. In truth, the floor morphology of CS is a vital consider its use throughout quite a few functions. Chitosan, characterised by a porous floor construction, displays distinctive adsorption means for steel ions, rendering it acceptable for steel ion uptake activities14. Conversely, chitosan with a fibrous floor morphology will be employed within the textiles sector69.<\/p>\n As compared, Talab et al.34,35\u00a0reported a really clean floor of CS and a porous-fibrous exterior construction of CS NPs extracted from shrimp shell waste. Talab et al.34\u00a0confirmed the variations within the CS floor texture relying primarily on its origin. Wahab et al.8\u00a0extracted Cs from Gecarcinucoidea that exhibited a extra inflexible and ridge-like form devoid of cavities in comparison with its comm CS. Anand et al.69\u00a0extracted CS from P. pelagicus that exhibited a tough, loosed and sheet-like SEM morphology much like these documented from mud crab and squilla species. Moreover, the CS extracted from Scylla sp. exhibited a sponge-like floor morphology with few gaps, equivalent to that of the blue crab70 and the horseshoe crab53. In the identical context, earlier works reported porous surfaces and nanofiber buildings of CS derived from crustaceans, together with krill, Gammarus argaeus, and pink shrimp, by29. Nonetheless, holes haven’t been noticed in sure chitosan samples derived from fungus71.<\/p>\n The basic composition of extracted crab CS and its NPs was analyzed by EDX and in contrast with the industrial ones (Fig.\u00a05). The EDX can confirm the amount and vitality of X-rays generated from the fabric with a purpose to detect the constituent elements69. This evaluation will be employed to check the acid capability of demineralization of chitin and therefore the purity of the extracted CS and its nanoform. CS primarily includes oxygen (O), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N) as its primary parts.<\/p>\n EDX Elemental Composition of (A) Crab CS, (B) Crab CS NPs, (C) Comm CS and (D) Comm CS NPs.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n The EDX outcomes indicated the existence of C, N, and O with different intensities relying on their supply in all samples (Fig.\u00a05). Crab CS primarily consisted of C (22.41%), N (15.84%), O (57.57%) by weight, indicating a excessive purity of chitosan exceeding 95.82% wt. Nonetheless, different elements-phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), potassium (Okay), sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), silicate (Si), and copper (Cu) have been detected in hint percentages (~\u20094.17% wt). In the same sample, crab CS NPs comprised C (22.91%), N (11.14%), O (61.96%) by weight, indicating a 96.01% of purity CS NPs. Upon the nanoparticle formation, the ratio between the totally different parts different, the place % O elevated whereas % N decreased by means of the ball milling method. The opposite parts of Na, Mg, Si, P, Okay, Ca, and C offered a complete weight of three.99% within the crab CS NPs. Accordingly, EDX is used as an instance the purity of the chitin extraction and the deacetylation capability.<\/p>\n The EDX outcomes could show the excessive capability of the utilized acid to take away most parts from the crab exoskeletons. However some parts nonetheless exist in traces\u2009<\u20095% wt. This examine referred to necessitating using a extra concentrated acid to eradicate these impurities. As compared, comm. CS consists of C (18.77%), N (14.93%), and O (62.13%), with a complete weight of 95.83% purity, with the existence of few parts of Na, Mg, Si, P, Okay, Ca, and Cu of about 4.16% wt. Furthermore, crab CS NPs comprised C (22.38%), N (13.26%), and O (60.94%) with a complete weight of 96.58% and a few traces of minerals of roughly 3.43%. Within the EDX mapping, the basic composition of Na, Mg, Si, P, Okay, Ca, and Cu was 0.8, 0.74, 0.23, 0.84, 0.08, 0.63, 0.85% wt, respectively, of crab CS whereas was 1.51, 0.51, 0.11, 0.38, 0.08, 0.63, and 0.85% wt, respectively, of Crab CS NPs. With respect to industrial ones, the EDX elemental composition of Na, Mg, Si, P, Okay, Ca, and Cu was 1.33, 0.94, 0.26, 0.69, 0.03, 0.36, and 0.55% wt, respectively, of comm. CS whereas was 1, 0.5, 0.23, 0.35, 0.08, 0.45, and 0.82; respectively of Comm. CS NPs. As compared, Talab et al.34\u00a0extracted CS and CS NPs from shrimp and crab exoskeletons in a earlier work and reported that crab CS contained minerals of three.09% Na, 0.22% Mg, 0.82percentP, 0.21% Okay, 2.88% Ca, and 1.12% Cu that exhibited much less purity than the present outcomes. The residual hint minerals detected by EDX evaluation could also be attributed to incomplete demineralization throughout acid therapy, which might have an effect on the applicability of ready chitosan for very delicate biomedical or food-grade functions. On this context, Talab et al.72\u00a0ascribed the shortcoming of diluted acid to extract each hint aspect from shrimp and crab shells, in distinction to concentrated acids, which can solely deposit little mineral residues.<\/p>\n The viscosity measurements for each Crab CS and Comm earlier than and following the conversion to nanoparticles spotlight vital distinctions of their rheological properties. Viscosity is essentially described because the proportion of shear stress to shear fee, usually demonstrating a reducing or stabilizing sample with rising shear fee, which is indicative of shear-thinning conduct generally noticed in polymeric options. Crab CS begins with the next viscosity (31.707 to 42.849 mPa\u00b7s), exhibiting irregular fluctuations that will stem from structural variances or aggregation phenomena. After present process nanoparticle conversion, its viscosity stabilizes inside a decrease vary (19.659 to 24.498 mPa\u00b7s), (Fig.\u00a06). Within the case of Comm CS, the viscosity begins at 17.818 mPa\u00b7s and progressively rises to 24.024 mPa\u00b7s because the shear fee will increase. Nonetheless, post-nanoparticle conversion, the viscosity declined (10.942 to 18.864 mPa\u00b7s), implying that the formation of nanoparticles diminishes intermolecular interactions and total move resistance. This discovering mirrors the conduct noticed in crab CS NPs. A comparative evaluation reveals that crab CS possesses a markedly greater viscosity than its industrial counterpart, suggesting a extra advanced molecular entanglement. Nonetheless, each CS varieties expertise a discount in viscosity following nanoparticle formation, thereby affirming that the presence of nano-sized particles enhances fluidity and mitigates macromolecular interactions. The viscosity of nanofluids is influenced by a mess of parts, encompassing the bottom fluid, particle dimensions, amount, morphology, dispersion method, pH, temperature, agglomeration, and the Brownian movement of nanoparticles73. Amongst these, the dimensions of the dispersed nanoparticles is a important determinant of nanofluid viscosity. Investigations into the results of particle dimensions on the viscous properties of nanofluids have yielded combined outcomes; some research point out that smaller particle sizes correlate with elevated viscosity, whereas others counsel the other trend74.<\/p>\n![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig3_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nScanning Electron Microscopy evaluation (SEM)<\/h4>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig4_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nElemental evaluation (EDX)<\/h4>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig5a_HTML.png\")
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig5b_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\nViscosity<\/h4>\n
![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig6_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\n![\"Fig.](\"https:\/\/media.springernature.com\/lw685\/springer-static\/image\/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-026-60387-z\/MediaObjects\/41598_2026_60387_Fig7_HTML.png\")
<\/div>\n